πνεῦμα—e.g. Gal. v. 17 ἡ γὰρ σὰρξ ἐπιθυμεῖ κατὰ τοῦ πνεύματοςψυχή is the essential “self” in man, of which his bodily life is only a secondary element.

1 Pet. iv. 8 ἀγάπη καλύπτει πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν.

Jas v. 20 one who converts a sinner καλύψει πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν. In Prov. x. 12 the LXX. reads μῖσος ἐγείρει νεῖκος πάντας δὲ τοὺς μὴ φιλονεικοῦντας καλύπτει φιλία—but the Hebrew is “love covereth all sins.”

It is possible that some Greek text of Proverbs x. 12 may have read καλύπτει πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν—or ἀγάπη καλύπτει πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν may have been an unwritten saying of Christ, as Resch suggestsbecause it is introduced by φησί in Clem. Αl. Paed. iii. 12 and by λέγει Κύριος in Didascalia ii. 3. But otherwise the words in Jas v. 20 can hardly be regarded as a quotation at all. In St Peter on the other hand there does seem to be an obvious reference to Proverbs x. 20, and, unless πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν occurred in the Greek text used by him or in some familiar saying, it seems probable that the variation from both the LXX. and the Hebrew was suggested by the phrase in St James.

It is less easy to suppose that St Peter originated this variant form of an O.T. proverb, and that St James borrowed part of it from him and used it in a sense which is very different from that in Proverbs and 1 Peter.

1 Pet. v. 5-9 ὁ θεὸς ὑπερηφάνοις ἀντιτάσσεται ταπεινοῖς δὲ δίδωσιν χάριν. Ταπεινώθητε οὖν ὑπὸ τὴν κραταιὰν χεῖρα τοῦ θεοῦ, ἵνα ὑμᾶς ὑψώσῃ...ὁ διάβολος...ᾧ ἀντίστητε.

Jas iv. 6 ὁ θεὸς ὑπερηφάνοις ἀντιτάσσεται ταπεινοῖς δὲ δίδωσιν χάριν. ὑποτάγητε οὖν τῷ θεῷ· ἀντίστητε δὲ τῷ διαβόλῳ...(10) ταπεινώθητε ἐνώπιον Κυρίου καὶ ὑψώσει ὑμᾶς.

Here both writers quote the same verse, Prov. iii. 34, with the same variation from the LXX. ὁ θεός for Κύριος. In St James the quotation is naturally suggested by the preceding words μείζονα δὲ δίδωσιν χάριν which Parry (St Jas. 40) explains to mean that God not only imparted a living soul to man in creation and therefore jealously demands its sole allegiance to Himself, but also bestows an even greater favour in the gift of regeneration— (cf. the λόγος ἀληθείας and the ἔμφυτος λόγος). This gift can only be received with meekness and humility (cf. ἐν πραύτητι). Proud self-will, which seeks its own pleasure and the friendship of the

world, inevitably means hostility to God-God "ranges Himself against" (ávτiáoσerai) the proud. Therefore "range yourselves under” (vπоτáyηte) God—and thereby take your stand against the devil. The pleasures of sin can only end in wretchedness, whereas humble submission to God leads to true greatness.

According to this interpretation the language about humility does form a natural part of the argument of St James and is not (as some have suggested) a rather disjointed digression based upon a quotation introduced merely to support δίδωσιν χάριν.

In St Peter also the passage suits the context in which it occurs. He had just urged the "elders" not to "lord it over" the flock, and "the younger" on the other hand to "submit" to the elders. All parties must gird themselves with humility to serve each other, "for God resisteth the proud but gives favour to the humble." Such "favour" is being conferred upon them even in their present sufferings. It is the God of all favour who is calling them to His eternal glory in Christ through suffering. But that favour can only be won by humble submission to God, coupled with stedfast resistance to the devil, who attempts to utilize such sufferings as an opportunity to “devour" his prey.

Thus in St James the quotation from Proverbs was suggested by the words didwoi xápiv, whereas St Peter borrows it to emphasize the need of humility. Then each writer turns to the other idea contained in the quotation. If this coincidence stood alone it might be argued that each quoted the same verse independently of the other (the common variant from the O.T. ó deós for Kúpios being possibly found in their text of the LXX.). But, in view of the other coincidences between the two Epistles, it is more probable that St Peter has borrowed from St James, giving a more practical application to the somewhat subtle ideas suggested by him.

Besides some coincidences in language, e.g. парaкú↓ai 1 Pet. i. 12, Jas i. 25; kadǹ åvaoτpopń 1 Pet. ii. 12, Jas iii. 13; τὸν στέφανον τῆς δόξης 1 Pet. v. 4; τὸν στέφανον τῆς ζωῆς Jas i. 12, there are also coincidences of thought.

Thus it has been suggested (Parry, St Jas. p. 69) that the striking phrase in Jas ii. 1 τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τῆς δόξης may explain St Peter's language about "glory." The title "our glory" seems to be applied to Christ in St James because in the

Person of Christ the divine ideal which manhood was destined to attain is revealed. So in 1 Pet. iv. 13, 14, those who are partakers of Christ's sufferings will rejoice in the revelation of His glory. To be reproached in the name of Christ is a blessed thing because it means that the Spirit of God, the characteristic sign of that glory, the consummation of manhood in Christ, is already resting upon them. The same idea underlies v. 1, 4, 10. But, although there is undoubted contact between the two Epistles and St Peter seems to have borrowed phrases, thoughts and arguments from St James, there is no servile adherence or imitation. St Peter and St James had for years been fellowworkers in Judaea, and all through his missionary work St Peter doubtless kept in touch with his old colleague at Jerusalem and would be acquainted with his Epistle almost as soon as it was written, and he re-echoes some of its thoughts and expressions in his own letter. But he alters and adapts them very freely, and the general tone and method of his letter is very different from that of St James.

(b) 1 Peter and Romans.

1 Pet. i. 14. μὴ συνσχηματιζό

μενοι.

Rom. xii. 2. μὴ συνσχηματί ζεσθε.

This word occurs nowhere else in Biblical Greek.

1 Pet. i. 17. τὸν ἀπροσωπολήμπτως κρίνοντα κατὰ τὸ ἑκάστου ἔργον.

Rom. ii. 6, 11. ὃς ἀποδώσει ἑκάστῳ κατὰ τὰ ἔργα αὐτοῦ οὐ γάρ ἐστι προσωπολημψία παρὰ τῷ θεῷ.

Here St Paul teaches that there will be no favouritism between Jews and Gentiles, a thought which St Peter expressed at his visit to Cornelius Acts x. 34. St Peter on the other hand shews that God's children have no right to look for favouritism from Him as their Judge.

1 Pet. i. 20 f. προεγνωσμένου μὲν πρὸ καταβολῆς κόσμου, φανερωθέντος δὲ ἐπ' ἐσχάτου τῶν χρόνων δι' ὑμᾶς (Gentiles) τοὺς δι' αὐτοῦ πιστούς.

Rom. xvi. 251.

μυστηρίου χρό

νοις αἰωνίοις σεσιγημένου φανερω θέντος δὲ νῦν...εἰς ὑπακοὴν πίστεως εἰς πάντα τὰ ἔθνη.

Here St Peter omits the characteristic Pauline word "mystery" but has the same idea of an eternal purpose of God for the inclusion of the Gentiles on terms of faith.

1 Pet. i. 21. πιστοὺς εἰς θεὸν αὐτὸν ἐκ νεκρῶν.

τοὺς δι' αὐτοῦ
ἐγείραντα

τὸν

Rom. iv. 24. τοῖς πιστεύουσιν ἐπὶ τὸν ἐγείραντα Ἰησοῦν τὸν Κύριον ἡμῶν ἐκ νεκρῶν.

Here St Peter's phrase πιστοὺς εἰς θεόν is unique, and the language about the resurrection is an almost creed-like phrase which occurs frequently in St Peter's speeches as well as in St Paul's Epistles.

Here St Peter is describing the Christian Church, the New Israel of God as a holy priesthood, whereas in Romans St Paul describes himself as the sacrificing priest who presents the Gentiles as an offering to God, but he does also urge his readers to present themselves as a sacrifice and contrasts their "reasonable" or spiritual sacrifice with that of dead animals, and St Peter has the same idea.

1 Pet. ii. 6 f. ἰδοὺ τίθημι ἐν Σιὼν λίθον ἐκλεκτὸν ἀκρογωνιαῖον ἔντιμον, καὶ ὁ πιστεύων ἐπ ̓ αὐτῷ οὐ μὴ καταισχυνθῇ...καὶ λίθος προσκόμματος καὶ πέτρα σκανδάλου, κ.τ.λ.

Rom. ix. 33. ἰδοὺ τίθημι ἐν Σιὼν λίθον προσκόμματος καὶ πέτραν σκανδάλου καὶ ὁ πιστεύων ἐπ' αὐτῷ οὐ καταισχυνθήσεται.

Here we have a combination of two passages Isaiah xxviii. 16 and viii. 14 (St Peter also introducing a third passage from Psalm cxviii. 22 about the stone which the builders rejected). Both have the same variations from the LXX. τίθημι ἐν Σιών instead οἱ ἐμβάλλω εἰς τὰ θεμέλια Σιών and λίθος προσκόμματος καὶ πέτρα σκανδάλου instead of οὐχ ὡς λίθου προσκόμματι συναντήσεσθε οὐδὲ ὡς πέτρας πτώματι, which is a loose paraphrase of the Hebrew and entirely inverts Isaiah's meaning by inserting a negative. St Peter and St Paul give an accurate translation of the Hebrew but are hardly likely to have selected independently the same Greek words, which do not occur in any known version. It is however possible that they might have borrowed from a common source, either a Greek Bible the text of which differed from the

LXX., or from an early catena of Old Testament Messianic passages in which the passages about "the Stone" were grouped together. This however is pure conjecture, and in view of the other undoubted coincidences between 1 Peter and Romans it is simpler to suppose that St Peter borrowed the composite quotation from St Paul, working it out in fuller detail and adding the verse from Ps. cxviii. which our Lord had quoted of himself and St Peter had used in one of his speeches Acts iv. 11.

1 Pet. ii. 10. οἵ ποτε οὐ λαὸς νῦν δὲ λαὸς θεοῦ, οἱ οὐκ ήλεημένοι νῦν δὲ ἐλεηθέντες.

Rom. ix. 25. καλέσω τὸν οὐ λαόν μου λαόν μου, καὶ τὴν οὐκ ἠγαπημένην ἠγαπημένην.

The passage is taken from Hosea ii. 23: St Peter agrees with the majority of MSS. of the LXX. which read yλenμévŋv instead of ἠγαπημένην which is found only in the Vatican MS. It might therefore be argued that St Peter is quoting independently from the LXX. But in Hosea the words refer to the restoration of renegade Israelites whereas St Paul applies them to the admission of the Gentiles, and it is in that sense that St Peter almost certainly employs the passage.

1 Pet. ii. 13—17. ὑποτάγητε πάσῃ ἀνθρωπίνῃ κτίσει διὰ τὸν κύριον· εἴτε βασιλεῖ ὡς ὑπερέχοντι, εἴτε ἡγεμόσιν ὡς δι ̓ αὐτοῦ πεμπομένοις εἰς ἐκδίκησιν κακοποιῶν ἔπαινον δὲ ἀγαθοποιών (ὅτι οὕτως ἐστὶν τὸ θέλημα τοῦ θεοῦ) ...πάντας τιμήσατε, τὴν ἀδελφότητα ἀγαπᾶτε, τὸν θεὸν φοβεῖσθε, τὸν βασιλέα τιμᾶτε.

Rom. xiii. 1. πᾶσα ψυχὴ ἐξουσίαις ὑπερεχούσαις ὑποτασσέ σθω· οὐ γάρ ἐστιν ἐξουσία εἰ μὴ ὑπὸ θεοῦ, αἱ δὲ οὖσαι ὑπὸ θεοῦ τεταγμέναι εἰσίν.

3. οἱ γὰρ ἄρχοντες οὐκ εἰσὶν φόβος τῷ ἀγαθῷ ἔργῳ ἀλλὰ τῷ κακῷ.

4. τὸ ἀγαθὸν ποίει καὶ ἕξεις ἔπαινον ἐξ αὐτῆς........θεοῦ γὰρ διάκονός ἐστιν, ἔκδικος εἰς ὀργὴν τῷ τὸ κακὸν πράσσοντι.

7. ἀπόδοτε πᾶσι τὰς ὀφειλάς, τῷ τὸν φόβον τὸν φόβον, τῷ τὴν τιμὴν τὴν τιμήν.

In this passage we have not only a number of common words and phrases but the same ideas occur in the same order.

1 Pet. ii. 24. ἵνα ταῖς ἁμαρτίαις ἀπογενόμενοι τῇ δικαιοσύνῃ ζήσω

μεν.

Rom. vi. 11. οὕτως καὶ ὑμεῖς λογίζεσθε ἑαυτοὺς εἶναι νεκροὺς μὲν τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ ζῶντας δὲ τῷ θεῷ ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ.

In both passages the old life of sin is regarded as being ideally terminated in the death of Christ.