idea from St James and either understood it or applied it in a more practical sense to outward trials.

1 Pet. i. 23 f. ἀναγεγεννημένοι...διὰ λόγου ζῶντος θεοῦ καὶ μένοντος...ἀποθέμενοι οὖν πᾶσαν κακίαν.

Jas i. 18, 21 βουληθεὶς ἀπεκύησεν ἡμᾶς λόγῳ ἀληθείας...διὸ ἀποθέμενοι...περισσείαν κακίας...δέξασθε τὸν ἔμφυτον λόγον. Here St James begins by referring to “the manifestation of God's will in creation as a strong warrant and incentive for resistance to temptation” (Parry). In St Peter the only allusion to creation is in iv. 19, that God is "a faithful creator" who may be trusted in all trials not to neglect His own handiwork.

St Peter on the other hand is referring to the word of regeneration by which man is begotten anew as a new creature.

But St James goes on to urge his readers to receive the implanted word (λóyos ëμputos), which seems to mean the fiat of creation after God's likeness, as an active redemptive principle now implanted within the man who receives it, and this must be the word of regeneration, the new principle of life given in Christ Jesus.

Both St Peter and St James shew that those who are thus begotten by the word of God must put away all malice. In St Peter this is urged as a necessary result of being so begotten. If the seed from which they spring is the incorruptible word of God which abides for ever, its fruit should be shewn in a love which is equally incorruptible and abiding, and this involves putting away all malice, etc. In St James the putting away of malice is rather a necessary preliminary in order to receive the implanted word. Thus the treatment of the subject is very different in the two writers. Whichever was the borrower has welded the idea into his own argument without any slavish imitation. But St James's appeal to the fiat of creation is more subtle and obscure than the appeal to regeneration by St Peter. It would therefore seem that St Peter has adopted one part only of St James' message, possibly not having himself grasped the allusion to the Gospel of Creation.

The contrast between corruptible seed and the word of God living and abiding for ever is emphasized by St Peter by a quotation from Isaiah xl. 6 πᾶσα σὰρξ χόρτος καὶ πᾶσα δόξα ἀνθρώπου ὡς ἄνθος χόρτου, ἐξηράνθη ὁ χόρτος καὶ τὸ ἄνθος ἐξέπεσεν,

τὸ δὲ ῥῆμα τοῦ θεοῦ ἡμῶν μένει εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα. In i. 24 he quotes the whole passage with three variations from the LXX. os being inserted after σάρξ, αὐτῆς substituted for ἀνθρώπου and Κυρίου for Toû beοû ημŵv, all of which readings may possibly have been found in the text of the LXX. used by St Peter. Now the main point in St Peter's use of the passage is the last clause, "the word of the Lord abideth for ever," but the earlier portion is also very appropriate to his argument. The fading glory of grass is a fitting emblem of "the corruptible seed," the vain manner of living which his readers had inherited from their heathen forefathers. Moreover the whole passage in Isaiah is a gospel of redemption and new birth for God's exiled people in Babylon, based upon the lastingness of God's promise as contrasted with the vanity of human schemes. It is therefore very suitable to describe the new birth of the New Israel, ransomed from their old heathen surroundings.

St Peter therefore might quite well have selected the passage independently. But in view of the other traces of his indebtedness to St James, it is not unlikely that the quotation was partly suggested to his mind by the fact that in Jas i. 10 a few phrases ὡς ἄνθος χόρτου...ἐξήρανε τὸν χόρτον καὶ τὸ ἄνθος αὐτοῦ ἐξέπεσε had been applied to the transitoriness of earthly riches.

1 Pet. ii. 11 ἀπέχεσθαι τῶν σαρκικῶν ἐπιθυμιῶν αἵτινες στρατεύονται κατὰ τῆς ψυχῆς.

Jas. iv. 1 ἐκ τῶν ἡδονῶν ὑμῶν τῶν στρατευομένων ἐν τοῖς μέλεσιν ὑμῶν; ἐπιθυμεῖτε.

In St Peter the words are an injunction to Christians, as strangers and sojourners, to abstain from the mutinous desires of the flesh which are at war against their true self (vxý). They must maintain an honourable standard in all their dealings with heathen neighbours.

In St James pleasures are regarded as hostile occupants of the members, resisting a lawful authority which is not named, and this causes quarrels and fightings. There is therefore not any close connexion of thought between the two passages.

Possibly St Peter may have had St Paul's words in Rom. vii. 23 in his mind. βλέπω ἕτερον νόμον ἐν τοῖς μέλεσίν μου ἀντιστρατευόμενον τῷ νόμῳ τοῦ νοός μου. The use of σαρκικός in a bad sense is decidedly Pauline, but yuxý must not be identified with

I PETER

e

πνεῦμα—e.g. Gal. v. 17 ἡ γὰρ σὰρξ ἐπιθυμεῖ κατὰ τοῦ πνεύματος ψυχή is the essential “self” in man, of which his bodily life is only a secondary element.

1 Pet. iv. 8 ἀγάπη καλύπτει πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν.

Jas v. 20 one who converts a sinner καλύψει πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν. In Prov. x. 12 the LXX. reads μῖσος ἐγείρει νεῖκος πάντας δὲ τοὺς μὴ φιλονεικοῦντας καλύπτει φιλία—but the Hebrew is “love covereth all sins.”

It is possible that some Greek text of Proverbs x. 12 may have read καλύπτει πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν—or ἀγάπη καλύπτει πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν may have been an unwritten saying of Christ, as Resch suggests— because it is introduced by φησί in Clem. Αl. Paed. iii. 12 and by λέγει Κύριος in Didascalia ii. 3. But otherwise the words in Jas v. 20 can hardly be regarded as a quotation at all. In St Peter on the other hand there does seem to be an obvious reference to Proverbs x. 20, and, unless πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν occurred in the Greek text used by him or in some familiar saying, it seems probable that the variation from both the LXX. and the Hebrew was suggested by the phrase in St James.

It is less easy to suppose that St Peter originated this variant form of an O.T. proverb, and that St James borrowed part of it from him and used it in a sense which is very different from that in Proverbs and 1 Peter.

1 Pet. v. 5-9 ὁ θεὸς ὑπερηφάνοις ἀντιτάσσεται ταπεινοῖς δὲ δίδωσιν χάριν. Ταπεινώθητε οὖν ὑπὸ τὴν κραταιὰν χεῖρα τοῦ θεοῦ, ἵνα ὑμᾶς ὑψώσῃ...ὁ διάβολος...ᾧ ἀντίστητε.

Jas iv. 6 ὁ θεὸς ὑπερηφάνοις ἀντιτάσσεται ταπεινοῖς δὲ δίδωσιν χάριν. ὑποτάγητε οὖν τῷ θεῷ· ἀντίστητε δὲ τῷ διαβόλῳ...(10) ταπεινώθητε ἐνώπιον Κυρίου καὶ ὑψώσει ὑμᾶς.

Here both writers quote the same verse, Prov. iii. 34, with the same variation from the LXX. ὁ θεός for Κύριος. In St James the quotation is naturally suggested by the preceding words μείζονα δὲ δίδωσιν χάριν which Parry (St Jas. 40) explains to mean that God not only imparted a living soul to man in creation and therefore jealously demands its sole allegiance to Himself, but also bestows an even greater favour in the gift of regeneration— (cf. the λόγος ἀληθείας and the ἔμφυτος λόγος). This gift can only be received with meekness and humility (cf. ἐν πραύτητι). Proud self-will, which seeks its own pleasure and the friendship of the

world, inevitably means hostility to God-God "ranges Himself against" (avriraoσerai) the proud. Therefore "range yourselves under” (vπоτάуηte) God—and thereby take your stand against the devil. The pleasures of sin can only end in wretchedness, whereas humble submission to God leads to true greatness.

According to this interpretation the language about humility does form a natural part of the argument of St James and is not (as some have suggested) a rather disjointed digression based upon a quotation introduced merely to support δίδωσιν χάριν. In St Peter also the passage suits the context in which it occurs. He had just urged the "elders" not to "lord it over" the flock, and "the younger" on the other hand to "submit" to the elders. All parties must gird themselves with humility to serve each other, "for God resisteth the proud but gives favour to the humble." Such "favour" is being conferred upon them even in their present sufferings. It is the God of all favour who is calling them to His eternal glory in Christ through suffering. But that favour can only be won by humble submission to God, coupled with stedfast resistance to the devil, who attempts to utilize such sufferings as an opportunity to "devour" his prey.

Thus in St James the quotation from Proverbs was suggested by the words didwσiv xápiv, whereas St Peter borrows it to emphasize the need of humility. Then each writer turns to the other idea contained in the quotation. If this coincidence stood alone it might be argued that each quoted the same verse independently of the other (the common variant from the O.T. ó cós for Kúpios being possibly found in their text of the LXX.). But, in view of the other coincidences between the two Epistles, it is more probable that St Peter has borrowed from St James, giving a more practical application to the somewhat subtle ideas suggested by him.

Besides some coincidences in language, e.g. пaрaкúαι 1 Pet. i. 12, Jas i. 25; kaλǹ åvaσтpopń 1 Pet. ii. 12, Jas iii. 13; τὸν στέφανον τῆς δόξης 1 Pet. v. 4; τὸν στέφανον τῆς ζωῆς Jas i. 12, there are also coincidences of thought.

Thus it has been suggested (Parry, St Jas. p. 69) that the striking phrase in Jas ii. 1 τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τῆς δόξης may explain St Peter's language about "glory." The title "our glory" seems to be applied to Christ in St James because in the

Person of Christ the divine ideal which manhood was destined to attain is revealed. So in 1 Pet. iv. 13, 14, those who are partakers of Christ's sufferings will rejoice in the revelation of His glory. To be reproached in the name of Christ is a blessed thing because it means that the Spirit of God, the characteristic sign of that glory, the consummation of manhood in Christ, is already resting upon them. The same idea underlies v.

1, 4, 10.

But, although there is undoubted contact between the two Epistles and St Peter seems to have borrowed phrases, thoughts and arguments from St James, there is no servile adherence or imitation. St Peter and St James had for years been fellowworkers in Judaea, and all through his missionary work St Peter doubtless kept in touch with his old colleague at Jerusalem and would be acquainted with his Epistle almost as soon as it was written, and he re-echoes some of its thoughts and expressions in his own letter. But he alters and adapts them very freely, and the general tone and method of his letter is very different from that of St James.

(b) 1 Peter and Romans.

1 Pet. i. 14. μὴ συνσχηματιζό

μενοι.

Rom. xii. 2. μὴ συνσχηματί ζεσθε.

This word occurs nowhere else in Biblical Greek.

1 Pet. i. 17. τὸν ἀπροσωπολήμπτως κρίνοντα κατὰ τὸ ἑκάστου ἔργον.

Rom. ii. 6, 11. ὃς ἀποδώσει ἑκάστῳ κατὰ τὰ ἔργα αὐτοῦ οὐ γάρ ἐστι προσωπολημψία παρὰ τῷ θεῷ.

Here St Paul teaches that there will be no favouritism between Jews and Gentiles, a thought which St Peter expressed at his visit to Cornelius Acts x. 34. St Peter on the other hand shews that God's children have no right to look for favouritism from Him as their Judge.

1 Pet. i. 20 f. προεγνωσμένου μὲν πρὸ καταβολῆς κόσμου, φανερωθέντος δὲ ἐπ ̓ ἐσχάτου τῶν χρόνων δι' ὑμᾶς (Gentiles) τοὺς δι' αὐτοῦ πιστούς.

Rom. xvi. 25f. μυστηρίου χρόνοις αἰωνίοις σεσιγημένου φανερωθέντος δὲ νῦν...εἰς ὑπακοὴν πίστεως εἰς πάντα τὰ ἔθνη.

Here St Peter omits the characteristic Pauline word "mystery" but has the same idea of an eternal purpose of God for the inclusion of the Gentiles on terms of faith.